Hume and the Utility of Practical Governance Essay

Hume and the Utility of Practical Governance - Essay Example Central to this concept is the implicit consent of the governed, whose accession to this arrangement is assumed to be voluntary. Hume disputed this notion, however, citing, as example, that there is nothing voluntary about an individual who is too poor to leave or seek subsistence anywhere but the nation of his birth. â€Å"We may as well assert, that a man, by remaining in a vessel, freely consents to the dominion of the master; though he was carried on board while asleep, and must leap into the ocean and perish, the moment he leaves her† (Graham 2011, p. 186). Hume’s essay â€Å"Of the Original Contract† argued that ideas about government by consent and the authority of the state must have context and a basis in historical fact to be practical. Hume decried the notion of original contract as put forth by the Whigs, whom he felt offered little concrete evidence and left too much to discretion and interpretation. In his view, it amounted to an invitation to revol t at the drop of the political hat. In other words, such theorizing might encourage citizens to rise up â€Å"whenever (the people) find themselves aggrieved by that authority, with which they have, for certain purposes, voluntarily entrusted (the sovereign)† (Forbes 1975, 93). ... n irresistibly powerful inclination to ascribe â€Å"liberal† or â€Å"conservative† leanings and associations to individuals who operate on the remotest periphery of the political sphere. Thus, it should come as no surprise that writers and historians have for centuries sought to paint Hume with a Tory or Whig brush (depending on their ideological preferences, of course). In light of the evidence, and Hume’s writings, this is a mistaken perspective. The most revealing information concerning Hume’s position on the original contract, and other political theories, came from Hume himself. â€Å"Hume provided an important clue to the proper interpretation of his political writings by referring himself as a ‘philosopher.’ As he pointed out, a philosopher looks at political problems differently than a spokesman for a political party† (Miller 1961). Miller notes – properly – that those who have studied Hume’s beliefs shoul d have concentrated on the â€Å"general principles which underly† the seemingly ambiguous statements Hume makes concerning government (Ibid). Miller makes a compelling argument, concluding that Hume cannot be considered partisan since he wrote as a political philosopher. In this light, Hume’s position concerning the original contract is one of pragmatism and expediency. His opinions are crafted so that they address the practical needs of government as he saw them in his day. 3 In his 1742 essay â€Å"Of Civil Liberty,† Hume is critical of both Tories and Whigs in regard to their treatment of the original contract. He is opposed to extremes, to the Tories’ â€Å"tracing up government to the Deity, (endeavoring) to render it†¦sacred and inviolate†¦, † and the Whigs’ regard of government as absolutely deriving from the consent of the people

Policy Brief #2 Poverty Alleviation and Microcredit Institutions Essay

Policy Brief #2 Poverty Alleviation and Microcredit Institutions - Essay Example As an example district kohistan of Pakistan had per capita annual income was hardly US $ 150.00 .The Micro finance bank of Pakistan (MFBP) came into this district in mid 1990s. The first thing the bank did was to get the consolidated reports of the ownership rights of the people over mountainous property of the people from the revenue department in order to determine the title of people. Then the MFBP issued passbooks to the people on the landed titles. The institution made small cooperative societies in every village of around 100- 200 households. MFBP advanced loans for the rehabilitation of scrub forest, indigenous poultry, sheep and goats and wherever possible dairy farming (MFBP 2006). The recoveries were affected through local headmen. Loans for tractors as carriage vehicle and bigger mechanical shops and gas stations were also sanctioned. By and large the response was positive. In early 2000 it was observed that the same district had shrub forest, developed shops, big poultry farm, and organized sheep and goat farms. The shops are looming on the roadside. There are hundreds of girls in the local private English medium schools by now. The banks recovery rates are 85-90 %. Potential i

Autism Intervention Therapies

Autism Intervention Therapies Introduction Autism is a neural development disorder exemplified by weakened social communication and interaction, and by restricted and repetitive limited behavior (Ardnt, 2005). These signs all initiate to ensue prior to a child grows to be three years old. Autism influence and affects processing of information in the brain by varying how nerve cells and their synapses organize and connect (Levitt, 2005). Autism is an invisible silent, outbreak that is whipping children and their prospects from the world whilst their mothers observe in, feebly, fear even as there is no means to do fight, since it evades all way of thinking (Rink, 2010). Signs of autism comprise extremely poor development of language, unusual or repetitive behaviors and a lessening interest in other individuals. There are considerable concerns classically, in relation to the children’s, communication, social interaction or behavior prior to a diagnosis of autism is done. Autism is an completely diverse world, one which ev erybody cannot understand appropriately It is constituent of several people’s regular life and it is extremely significant to teach not simply such persons so that they can afford better support for their loved one however as well to teach the community as a whole for a better acceptance and understanding., For autism regrettably there is no total cure like a further disease for instance diabetes, however medical advancements made custom help manage the disease consecutively for the autistic person to function more successfully and competently in society and be accepted as a human being. The autism biological causes have been debate for more than half a century and been a foundation of inquisition. The extensive range of cognitive and social deficits that are identified as autism spectrum disorders[ASD] are habitually moderately disabling, consequently there is animperative need to discover treatments. Scientists and a variety of experts at the present have started to determine that not all disorders of autism-related are similar. They materialize to have diverse inferences for brain function and, accordingly, treatment. Autism does not have a proven treatment and does avert children in definite realms of life however it is treatable. When it is early on diagnosis and treated, it will let some kind of normalcy for the children and parents. Autism has no proven cure and do restricts children in definite realms of life however it is treatable. When timely early on treatment, this will let some sort of normalcy for the kids and their parents. Studies and lately develope d methods of imaging have helped to demonstrate several of the bigger brain areas mixed up with autism. The areas comprise the, cerebellum, cerebral cortex, and temporal lobe—particularly the amygdala (Kibiuk, 1998). The disorder might approach from the malfunction of diverse parts of the brain that work together. Autistics are described as not having compassion in a comparable way that a predator animal does have emotions in relation to its prey. Various types of interventions are used to treat ASD. Autism interventions endeavor to reduce the abnormal behaviors and deficits connected with autism and further ASD, and to add to the excellence of life and functional autonomy of individuals with autistic, in particular children. Treatment is classically accommodated to the needs of child. Following are the well-known forms of interventions used for its treatment. Cognitive-behavioral therapy There is a sturdy support base for the utilization of interventions of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) for anxiety and depression in ASD populations. There is a diversity of approaches of CBT, nevertheless the majority share a number of normal elements. The most important objectives of conventional CBT are to recognize and defy catastrophic cognitions, dysfunctional beliefs, and habitual thoughts in addition to change difficult behavior. The individual with a therapist’s help, is supported to defy his or her beliefs and mechanical thoughts in the course of a diversity of techniques. The individual through CBT, learns skills to change beliefs and thoughts, in addition to strategies of problem-solving to develop interaction with others in appropriate and effective ways, thus supporting self-regulation. Models of CBT for the treatment of anxiety attempt to generate a fresh coping pattern by means of behavioral techniques for instance exposure, modeling, and relaxation in addition to as cognitive techniques tackling cognitive deficiencies and distortions. These models of treatment usually highlight 4 vital constituents of therapy: evaluation, psycho education, restructuring of cognitive, and exposure. CBT by means of these four components has been revealed to be an empirically supported treatment for classically developing children with issues of anxiety. The mainly regularly used methods to treat anxiety in children are cognitive restructuring, relaxation, exposure, and modeling in that order. It is imperative to make certain that the young individual has the similar definition and understanding of words, and affective education can assist enhance their language of emotional expression.[ Wood, J. J., Drahota, A., Sze, K., Har, K., Chiu, A., Langer, D. A. (2009).] Several components of intervention can be inserted to CBT. A number of of the implications comprise; a) Increasing the utilization of visual aids. b) Associate emotions with concrete objects. c) A stress on dealing with strategies that do not need the employ of intangible language for example the employ of relaxation. d) Use of substitute modes of communication. e) Embedding the employ of additive interests into sessions of CBT. f) Increasing the spotlight on teaching communal skills.[ Wood, J. J., Drahota, A., Sze, K., Har, K., Chiu, A., Langer, D. A. (2009).] There has been as well the concept of an emotional toolbox and centered on operational with the young children in recognizing diverse tools to ‘fix’ problems that take place as a effect of negative emotions together with anxiety, anger, and sadness. The ‘tools’ are additional divided into those that fruitfully reduce or release energy and those that develop thinking. The therapist usually works collectively with the young children to depict a range of tools and actions which support constructive emotions fix. Autistic children do recognize how to utter words, however require a few help in what and when to say it. Speech therapy can as well help autistic children on how to be taught to continue a conversation while comprehending the significance of the words being used. Incorporated in the standard bill which was recommended by Autism Speaks, which has been filed, passed or has been at present under development in all except six states, is a legislation that includes reporting for the deliverance of ABA services. Social skills therapy will as well assist children to be taught to deal with autism and direct normal lives. The mainly prominent and obvious complication with autism children is their incapability to commune and interact clearly and efficiently with others. As they have extremely little information and knowledge of what precisely is going on in a social situation, they are limited to what they can say and do (Ryder, 2010). Cognitive restructuring intends to facilitate the young children to correct dysfunctional beliefs and distorted conceptualizations. It entails challenging the existing thinking with logical facts and guarantying and control cognitive rationalization of their emotions. Young children with ASD can construct false supposition of their intentions and circumstances of others owing to mind abilities impaired or delayed theory. These young children as well are inclined to construct accurate interpretations and are less able to seek out alternative responses or explanations. Psychopharmacology Pharmacologic interventions might be deemed for maladaptive behaviors, for instance self-injury, aggression, repetitive behaviors (e.g., compulsions, obsessions, perseveration, stereotypies), , mood lability, sleep disturbance, irritability, hyperactivity, anxiety, inattention, destructive behavior, or additional troublesome behaviors. After medical treatable causes and adjustable factors of environmental have been lined out, a therapeutic examination of medication might be considered if the symptoms of behavioral source considerable harm in functioning. In a number of cases, the analysis of a psychiatric disorder can be completed, and the patient can be cured with the related medications utilized in treating these situations in classically adolescents and developing children.[ à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ · Erickson CA, Posey DJ, Stigler KA, McDougle CJ.] Atypical antipsychotic agents, Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), alpha2 agonists and stimulants, are the mainly usually set psychotropic medications in kids with ASDs. Placebo-controlled Double-blind, trials have revealed that the fluvoxamine (Luvox; no longer accessible in the United States) and SSRIs fluoxetine (Prozac) are efficient in the treatment of maladaptive and additional repetitive behaviors in patients with ASDs. Trials of Open-label of these and additional SSRIs have revealed enhancement in symptoms of target, as well as irritability, repetitive behaviors, tantrums, depressive symptoms, aggression, anxiety, difficulty with social interaction, transitions, and language. Approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Risperidone (Risperdal) is the primary medicine for the treatment of indication of irritability (as well as deliberate self-injury, aggressive behavior, and temper tantrums) in adolescents and children with ASDs. Potential unfavorable effects comprise insulin resistance, extreme appetite and weight gain, hyperprolactinemia, dyslipidemia, extrapyramidal symptoms, hematologic abnormalities neuroleptic malignant syndrome, tardive dyskinesia, QTc prolongation, urinary retention, dry mouth, seizures, constipation, and sedation. Recent placebo-controlled double-blind, methylphenidate (Ritalin)trials have revealed improvement in impulsivity, hyperactivity, and inattention in kids with ASDs. Methylphenidate is effectual in a number of children with ASDs, however the rate of response is lesser than that in children with disorder of isolated attention-deficit/hyperactivity, and unfavorable effects are more general. It is ambiguous whether the effects can be generalized to additional stimulants. Adverse Potential effects comprise inhibition of growth, appetite reduction, delayed sleep onset, exacerbation of tics, jitteriness, increased blood pressure, abdominal discomfort, increased anxiety, increased heart rate, irritability, and repetitive behaviors. Placebo-controlled two small double-blind, trials have revealed modest advantages of clonidine (Catapres) in reducing symptoms of hyperarousal (e.g., irritability. impulsivity, hyperactivity,and outbursts, repetitive behaviors) in kids with ASDs. A potential open-label trial and a retrospective review of record recommend that guanfacine (Tenex) is likewise efficient in several patients. Adverse Potential effects of these alpha2 agonists comprise sedation, constipation, drowsiness, dry mouth, dizziness, decreased blood pressure, and irritability. Pharmacotherapy persists to be a significant constituent of a comprehensive program of treatment for ASD. Evidence is collected supporting the utilization of antipsychotic second-generation medications and discerning reuptake serotonin inhibitors. Fresh studies propose that they are efficient and moderately well endured, not merely in the adult population however as well in children with this disorder. Additional approaches, for instance the use of anticonvulsants, acetylcholinesterase inhibitors, and dietary enzymes, might as well be potentially helpful, however additional research on these compounds is required. Complementary and Alternative Medicine The employ of alternative and complementary medicine (CAM) is general in kids with ASDs. Children by the time obtain a formal evaluation of diagnostic for a alleged ASD, almost one third previously have endeavored a complementary or alternative therapy. It is significant that professionals of health care recognize how to appraise the facts used to sustain all treatments, as well as psychopharmacologic, CAM, and additional interventions. Ideally, the facts refuting or supporting a treatment must comprise studies of peer-reviewed with well-defined homogeneous correctly diagnosed, study populations;, double-blind, a randomized placebo-controlled design; and an sufficient sample size to sustain the arithmetic analysis presented. It must as well control for stunning factors and utilize validated appropriate, outcome measures. [Leskovec TJ, Rowles BM, ]When assessing the efficiency of studies, it is mainly significant to bear in mind confounding factors, for instance the effect of placebo, and the normal history of the disorder. CAM therapies utilized to treat ASDs have been classified as nonbiologic or biologic. Examples of biologic therapies comprise interventions of immunoregulatory (e.g., administration of antiviral agents or immunoglobulin, dietary restriction of food allergens,), therapies of detoxification (e.g., chelation), treatments of gastrointestinal (e.g., antifungal agents, â€Å"yeast-free diet,† digestive enzymes, probiotics, gluten/casein-free diet), and regimens of dietary supplement (e.g., vitamin A, vitamin B6 . vitamin B12, vitamin C, and magnesium, carnosine,folinic acid, folic acid, trimethylglycine and dimethylglycine, various minerals omega-3 fatty acids, inositol,). [William Shaw, Bernard Rimland]Examples of interventions of nonbiologic comprise auditory integration training, dolphin-assisted therapy,craniosacral manipulation, music therapy, behavioral optometry, and facilitated communication.[ Leskovec TJ, Rowles BM,] Since of methodologic flaws, lack of replication or insufficient numbers of patients, , a lot of CAM therapies have been insufficiently evaluated; consequently, recommendations of evidence-based for their utilization are not likely. The mainly current and mainly properly designed trials have revealed no considerable advantage of vitamin B6, dimethylglycine, and magnesium, or auditory integration training. Negative and Positive results have been depicted for small, flawed methodologically studies of intravenous immunoglobulin. A current placebo-controlled double-blind, trial divulged no statistically considerable difference on Checklist sub-scale scores of Aberrant Behavior amid small groupings of children with ASDs who were specified omega-3 fatty acids and individuals who were specified placebo. On the other hand, the investigators noted an inclination in the direction of dominance of omega-3 fatty acids above placebo for hyperactivity, which proposes that additional examination may be needed. Even though employ of the diet of gluten/casein-free for children with ASDs is accepted, there is little proof to sustain or disprove this intervention. Conclusion For autistics, its important and crucial to be included in, job training, education etc. and the system which provides those opportunities will have to change in a radical way for that to happen. For bringing change, people who are not much involved in the system must challenge the system rather than agree to the compromises which are advertised as incremental alterations, which make things better. Parents of such children are desperate. Aging caretakers similar to single mother knowing how complex it is to take care for an adult with autism, are habitually turn out to be prisoners in their individual homes, with extremely less or no relief in sight. They are acquainted with how simple it would be for any ordinary untrained children to be disturbed at the poor skills of communication and extremely strange behavior of their daughter or son, and how without difficulty abuse can occur. Children with autism don’t require wheelchairs, artificial legs, or a guide dog. They need help of others. Manyeven mostneed job coaches consecutively to be employed in incorporated work settings. There needs to be a program of accreditation which is knowledgeable and sensitive to, about the specific issues faced by the providers of autism-specific services to adults with autism—especially residential services. Statewide Positive Behavioral Support is part of an endeavor to additional evidently classify the merging of the judicial system and the school system. Psychosocial and Pharmacological treatment have been the majority general approaches to the anxiety treatment in children with ASD, however no solitary anxiety treatment has materialized to accomplish well established or almost certainly effective empirically sustained treatment position for children with an ASD. Substantiation for intervention of pharmacological is restricted. Also the medication effects simply materialize to last only if the medicine is used, with degeneration just the once administration is ceased. Children with ASDs Parents will reasonably follow interventions that they consider might assist their child, predominantly if the therapies are viewed as being dubious to have any undesirable effects. Regrettably, families are frequently depicted to pseudoscientific unsubstantiated, theories and associated practices of clinical that are, at preeminent unproductive and, at worst, contend with authenticated treatments or direct to emotional, physical, or financial harm. Professionals of Health care can assist parents and other caregivers differentiate validated empirically treatment approaches from ineffective or unproven treatments. References Erickson CA, Posey DJ, Stigler KA, McDougle CJ. Pharmacologic treatment of autism and related disorders. Pediatr Ann. 2007;36(9):575–85. Levitt, P. : The Clinical-Basic Interface in DefiningAutismand Developmental Disorders.164 (1): 107-116,2005 Leskovec TJ, Rowles BM, Findling RL. Pharmacological treatment options for autism spectrum disorders in children and adolescents. Harv Rev Psychiatry. 2008;16(2):97–112. Moree, B. N., Davis III, T. E. (2010). Cognitive-behavioral therapy for anxiety in children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders: Modification trends. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 4, 346–354. Ryder, J. (2010, July 31). Current Trends in Autism Treatment. Retrieved October 24, 2010, Wood, J. J., Drahota, A., Sze, K., Har, K., Chiu, A., Langer, D. A. (2009). Cognitive behavioral therapy for anxiety in children with autism spectrum disorders: A randomized, controlled trial. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50, 224–234. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.01948.x William Shaw, Bernard Rimland, Biological treatments for autism and PDD, 3rd ed., W. Shaw, 2008

White-Collar Crime Essay -- Crime

Businesses are vulnerable to a variety of internal and external crime that affects an organization’s performance. White-collar crime is a problem affecting businesses in the U.S. and around the world, costing billions of dollars in lost revenue every year. This paper will identify the types of employee crimes focusing on theft and the perpetrators; examine the impact to businesses and explore how business can deal with these offenses. Mr. Smith places some extra highlighters and colored paper in his briefcase from the office’s supply closet for young Billy to use on his school project. Joanne has returned to her desk a 15 minutes late from her lunch break and is now surfing the web for airfare while on the phone long distance with her ailing grandmother to discuss plans to see her next month. Leonard supplements his hourly wage from working nights at the gas station by sneaking a couple scratch-off lottery tickets off the roll when the owner isn’t around. Mrs. Sara Swindle has been defrauding union members by diverting dues for her own use. Some of these examples may not necessarily be prosecuted or even discovered but nonetheless are examples of employee theft or white-collar crime. Businesses face a myriad of internal threats for their success; the focus for this paper is theft; including theft of cash, inventory and equipment. Other types of employee crime include: writing company checks, money laundering, processing fraudulent invoices, payroll fraud, falsifying revenue reports, customer identity theft, intellectual property theft, overstated expense reports and credit card fraud (Bressler, 2011). Long before credit card fraud and identity theft, business owners dealt with theft. There is a no more clear exampl... ...activity and its impact on business. The Entrepreneurial Executive, 16, 49-61. Retrieved from http://0-search.proquest.com.oak.indwes.edu/docview/885012416?accountid=6363 Kuratko, D. F., Hornsby, J. S., Naffziger, D. W., & Hodgetts, R. M. (2000). Crime and Small Business: An Exploratory Study of Cost and Prevention Issues in U.S. Firms. Journal Of Small Business Management, 38(3), 1-13. Retrieved from http://0-web.ebscohost.com.oak.indwes.edu/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=56e11fdb-9475-4a64-9062-e0c057beace7%40sessionmgr11&vid=21&hid=15 Larson, E. (1985, January 14). Crook's tool: Computers turn out to be valuable aid in employee crime --- machines facilitate stealing, extortion and sabotage; west coast's robin hood --- you don't trust anybody. The Wall Street Journal, p. 1. Retrieved from http://0-search.proquest.com.oak.indwes.edu/docview/397889148?accountid=6363

Contribution of Savigny and Maine to Malaysian Constitution Essay

The views of Maine and Savigny had indeed contributed to some provisions in the Federal Constitution of Malaysia. Before the discussion proceeds in looking into provision that reflects the views of Maine and Savigny, it is better for us to understand first, what are the views suggested, or rather arguments put forward by these two jurists. The first jurist of the discussion is Savigny. Friedrich Carl von Savigny (21 February 1779 – 25 October 1861) was a German jurist and legal scholar who was one of the founders of the influential â€Å"historical school† of jurisprudence. He advocated that the meaning and content of existing bodies of law be analyzed through research into their historical origins and modes of transformation. Savigny’s great works are the Recht des Besitzes and the Beruf unserer Zeit fur Gesetzgebung. In 1814, the wave of German nationalism inspired by the war of liberation against Napoleon led the Heidelberg law professor Thibaut to demand a unified civil code for all the German states. Savigny opposed this demand for an immediate codification of German law in a famous pamphlet, â€Å"Vom Beruf unserer Zeit fur Gesetzgebung und Rechtswissenschaft† (1814; â€Å"Of the Vocation of Our Age for Legislation and Jurisprudence†), that started juristic thought along a new path. To Savigny, a hasty legal codification was something to be avoided, since the one essential prerequisite for such a codification was a deep and far-reaching appreciation of the spirit of the particular community. Savigny’s jurisprudential perspective was in part inspired by the Romantic Movement, which took the form in Germany of a movement harking back to the simplest tribal origins of the German people, to their folk songs and tales and to their distinctive ethos, or Volksgeist (â€Å"national spirit†). To the Romantics, the national spirit thus became the ultimate datum to be explored in its various manifestations. The Volkgeist theory introduced by Savigny seeks to shed the light that law is an expression of will of people or manifestation of people’s spirit. From this point of view law is not something that can be devised by means of rational formal legislation but rather originates in the unique spirit of a particular people and is expressed spontaneously in custom and, much later, in the formal decisions of judges. Law grows with the growth, strength with the strength of people, and dies away as the nation loses its nationality. This can also be explained further by looking at the stages of development of law by Savigny, in which, firstly, the political element, where the law is not found in legislation but in the spirit of people; secondly, the technical element, where the law is technical and needs particular expertise to develop it; and lastly, the loss of national identity, where when the society no longer needs the first and the second stage, this is when the people no longer wants the law and wanted a new one. Moreover, he rejected natural law and positive law as law should be made by the will of the people. Savigny pointed out that legislation and law codes can, at most, give mere verbal expression to a body of existing law whose meaning and content can only be discovered by careful historical investigations. Historical jurisprudence opposed not only attempts at codification but also those rationalist thinkers who sought to derive legal theories from general and universal principles without respect to the characteristics and customs of a particular people. Savigny sought rather to uncover the content of existing law through historical research. He held that legal science should be both historical and systematic, meaning that it should endeavour to show the inner coherence of the material handed down in the historical sources. The second jurist of the discussion is Sir Henry Maine. Sir Henry James Sumner Maine (15 August 1822 – 3 February 1888) was a Professor of Civil Law at Oxford University in 1847. He is famous for the thesis outlined in Ancient Law (1861). He studied the beginning of law, in which he concluded that ancient law was derived from codes of Manu and Narada, the Brehon Laws, the Twelve Tables and Homer. He was learned in English, Roman, and Hindu laws and also knowledge of Celtic systems. Instead of stressing the uniqueness of national institutions, he brought to bear a scientific urge to unify, classify and generalize the evolution of different legal orders. He was the first and still remains the greatest representative of the historical movement in England. He introduced a theory based on customary law known as the anthropological approach. The anthropological approach is a study of human being based on custom. Maine set out to discover whether a pattern of legal development could be extracted from a comparative examination of different system, especially between Roman law and the common law, which then he was led to distinguish between what he called ‘static’ and ‘progressive’ societies. ‘Static’ societies are regarded as undeveloped society and society whom do not progress. ‘Progressive’ societies are of which the societies proceed to develop the law by three methods; fiction, equity, and legislation. Generally, Maine believed that no human institution was permanent, and that change was not necessarily for the better. An example would be when societies progressed from hunters to farmers to pastorals. Maine stated that in early societies, both ‘static’ and ‘progressive’, the legal condition of the individual is determined by status, i. e. his claims, duties, liberties, are determined by law. The coming of ‘progressive’ societies witnesses the disintegration of status and determination of the legal condition of the individual by free negotiation on his part. One of Maine’s famous generalizations reads: ‘the movement of progressive societies has hitherto been a movement from status to contract’. This is where rather than a society based on stratified system, Maine proposes the concept of moving towards a contract society where everyone is free to negotiation at his own terms. According to Maine, there has been modification of later development, namely by means of fiction, equity and legislation. Deliberate legislation is now seen to have been an early method of law-making with fiction and equity coming at later stage. The codes, which one finds at the culmination of the primitive period, were chiefly collections of earlier legislation. Primitive law was by no means as rigid as Maine though nor were people inflexible bound by it. It is generally agreed that even in primitive societies, people do control their destinies, that they are by no means blindly subservient to custom. The conscious purpose of achieving some end precedes the adaptation of human behavior, and the adaptation of behavior is followed by adaptation of the structure of social organization. As it is now clear the views and propositions put forward by both Savigny and Maine, the discussion will be prolong in discussing the contribution of their ideas in its application to the Malaysian Constitution (Federal Constitution 1957). The Malaysian Constitution was drafted by taking into account the legacy of the past and product of customs, traditions and beliefs prevalent in different communities, and the need of the people. This is in line with Savigny’s view that law is not an abstract set of rules imposed on society but has deep roots in social and economic factors and the attitude of its past and present members of the society. The social contract which Malaysian Constitution was mainly based, a form bargain made by the citizen; that they would all have a place in the new independent nation, but not without some compromise and sacrifice on everyone’s part. This social contract has always been a crucial and sometimes contentious part of the nation’s constitution. The Reid Commission and the Alliance tried hard to take into consideration the different, and times divergent concerns on the ground. â€Å"The Constitution gave everyone something and to no one everything. Everyone got something in terms of citizenship, cultural pluralism and economic/commercial rights. The constitution did try to walk the middle path. †(Tunku Abdul Rahman, 1957) In the same 1957 speech upon returning from London, Tunku acknowledged that while it was important to have a constitution that was agreeable to most people, there would come a time when change was required. â€Å"Any constitution prepared today is not immutable. It can be changed, modified or improved according to the wishes of the people,† he said. The importance to have our own unique constitution is that, it tells us the position of a state itself. How independent and how the constitution would be accepted by the citizen. That it seeks to constitution describing the position of the individual vis-a-vis the state. It seeks to achieve a fair balance between the right of the state and the rights of the citizen, it confers on the citizen some basic rights and provides perimeter within which these rights can be exercised. The concept of Volksgeist is deeply entrenches in our constitution as it is after all the manifestation of the spirit and consciousness of the people and not from deliberate legislation. The social contract is the â€Å"spirit of the people who evolved around it†. This notion can be seen in the Commission chaired by Lord Reid in 1965 to formulate and draft and refine the Constitution of the Federation of Malaya. The commission sought the views of political parties, non-political organizations and individuals on the form of government and racial structure appropriate for this country. This is of course based on the historical, beliefs and cultural background of the society at that point of time. The memorandum of the Alliance had gained precedence in which the memorandum centers its concern at mutual interest and strengthening the nation’s democratic system of the government. The memorandum took into account in to five main factors namely the position of the Malays rulers, Islam as the official religion of the Federation, position of the Malay language, the special rights of the Malays and equal citizenship. We are going to look into these factors one by one. Firstly, the demand is that for the power of the Malay rulers to be preserved, which is conferred under Article 38 of the Constitution that established the conference of Rulers or ‘Durbar’. The council will act as the protector of the Malays, custom and religion. This power is materialized where the conference of ruler have need to be consulted in amending the Constitution and some other privileges in particular, those Articles which have been â€Å"entrenched†, namely those pertaining to the status of the rulers, the special privileges of the indigenous Bumiputera (Article 153 of the Constitution), the status of the Malay language as the National language, and the clause governing the entrenchment of such Articles. In the case of the Malays, these privileges related to the reservation of their position in the public services, of scholarship and other similar educational and training facilities (Article 153). Parliament is also empowered to reserve and for alienation to the Malays (Article 89 and Article 90) and also to restrict enlistment in the Malay regiment which to some extend violates right to equality of the people under Article 8 of the constitution but however in the spirit of the citizen itself. In the matter of religion, Islam was made the religion of the Federation. Tunku Abdul Rahman at the time was under pressure from the UMNO argued that the inclusion of Article 3 was important psychologically to the Malays. Nevertheless in recognizing the objections of the Rulers also the concern of the non-Malays, two provisos were included in the article in which it would not affect the position of the rulers in their respective state as head of Islam and that the practice and propagation of other religion in the federation would be assured. As for language that is entrenched under Article 152 of the Constitution, the Alliance agreed to UMNO’s proposal that Malay be the official language but that there would be no objections to the use of Chinese and Tamil for unofficial purpose. It was further guaranteed that the proviso in Article 152 will allow the teaching of Chinese and Tamil and that there would schools for the respective races. Among these five issues, the biggest bargain that the Bumiputera has offered during the drafting of the constitution must be the social contract in which the Malays would accept the jus soli citizenship and the minorities would settle with the special privilege conferred to the Bumiputera. The liberal citizenship requirement was a major concession from the Malays for with this agreement; large number of non-Malays became citizens. In exchange for liberalizing citizenship requirement, non-Malays leaders in the alliance accepted the special position of the Malays. Thus it can be seen the constitution of Malaysia largely drafted around the notion of Volksgeist; law should always conform to the popular consciousness. Hence, the provisions of the constitution was not the result of an arbitrary act of legislation but developed as a response to the impersonal powers to be found in the people’s national spirit. As mentioned earlier, Maine opines that a society should move towards a â€Å"contract society† from a â€Å"status society†, where individuals of the disadvantages group will be able rise above their discrimination, that is, the structure of society and rules of the game, so to speak, must be changed in order to achieve ethnic equality. The progress however, must not disregard the customs of the society. The notion of progress from status to contract is depending on the society itself. The application of Maine’s proposition is a bit different as Malaysia, from moving to status contract, Malaysia is progressing from contract society to planned society. To clearly observe the progress if the society in Malaysia from a status society, to a contract society, then to a planned society, while respecting the custom of the society, entrenched in the provisions of the Malaysian Constitution; we should first look in to the history of Malaysia. The Malaysian Constitution is the product of the political, economic and social development of the stratified people that can be traced back to the Malacca Sultanates. The highest ground of administration was the Sultan and it stays the way it is as the system was so to say, perfectly working at the time. The Sultan controls the government, act as the supreme command of the military power and symbolize the unity of the welfare. There was no issue of inequality of right as the society at that time as the citizen was so contented with the idea of leaded by a Ruler. It was only until the British colonial period commenced that the issue of advancing the society emerged. Treaty of the Federation 1895 which have the common clause that the four states; Selangor, Pahang, Negeri Sembilan and Perak to accept British officer that act as Resident General.

The History of Home Schooling

Before the beginning of American public schools in the mid-19th century, home schooling was the norm. Founding father John Adams encouraged his spouse to educate their children while he was on diplomatic missions (Clark, 1994). By the 1840's instruction books for the home were becoming popular in the United States and Britain. The difficulty of traveling to the system of community schools was provoking detractors. At this time, most of the country began moving toward public schools (Clark, 1994). One of the first things early pioneers did was set aside a plot of land to build a school house and try to recruit the most educated resident to be the schoolmarm. This led to recruiting of graduates Eastern Seaboard colleges to further the education oftheir children beyond what they could do at home (Clark, 1994). As the popularity of the public school movement began to rise behind Horace Mann many states soon passed compulsory-education laws. These were designed primarily to prevent farmers, miners, and other parents form keeping their kids home to work (Clark, 1994). Ironically another factor behind public schools was the desire to use them to spread Christian morality, with its concern for the larger good over individualism (Clark, 1994). Massachusetts enacted the first such laws in 1852 requiring children ages 8-14 to be at school at least 12 weeks a year unless they were too poor. The laws proved to be effective, from 1870-1898 the number of children enrolling in the public schools outpaced the population growth. Except for certain religious sects and correspondence schools home schooling remained limited for most of the 20th century. During the 1960's the hippie counterculture exploded into the scene. This culture led a revolt against the education establishment. Thousands of young Americans began dropping out of society and going back to the land to live on communes that generated the modern home schooling movement. Twenty years ago, many states did not allow home schooling. Constitutional protection has always been uncertain. The U.S. Supreme Court has never explicitly ruled on home schooling. Although in 1972, in Wisconsin v. Yoder, the Court did restrict compulsory school requirements in a limited ruling involving the right of Amish students not to attend high school (Lines, 1996). In Wisconsin v. Yoder, the Amish parents claimed that high school attendance was destructive to their children's religious beliefs and would interfere with their pursuit of the Amish way of life (Fisher, Schimmel, and Kelley, 1995). Since this ruling there have been many court cases dealing with the issue of home schooling. All 50 states allow home schooling ad 34 states have enacted specific home schooling statutes or regulations (Clark, 1994). What drives many home-schoolers are the well-documented social troubles and the declining test scores in the public schools. In 1991, the total number of children being home schooled was between 248,500 and 353,500. Many public educators feel that children who are home schooled are missing out on key learning situations that come from the public school. For instance the sciene experiments, these would be very costly to duplicate at home. Also they argue that home school children miss out on the social aspect of school. Very often they are not around many children their age and socialization does not take place. As the home schooling movement has become more widespread, state and local officials have responded with more vigorous enforcement of their compulsory education laws. As a result of this there is more litigation and new regulations. As both parents and school official's evidence increasing inflexibility, the statues play a central role in the battle over the education of the child. A secondary role is played by the courts which, in resolving the disputes between parents and the schools, must interpret and test the statutes (Chiusano 1996). Parents who are being prosecuted for instructing their children at home are attacking compulsory school attendance statues on constitutional grounds. Although no case dealing specifically with home instruction has yet reached the Supreme Court, the increased activism of the home school movement may produce a ruling in the near future (Lines, 1996). Constitutional challenges have been based on the First or Fourteenth Amendment. In many of the home instruction cases' parents have removed their children from school for religious reasons. These parents argue that they have a highly protected First Amendment freedom to educate their children according to their religious percepts and values. The most recent court decisions provide consistent continued confirmation of the Yoder decision. In Howell v. State (1986), Texas' intermediate appellate court rejected Yoder protection for parents who argued that their religious conviction was to educate their children at home (Richardson, Zirkel, 1991). In State v. Schmidt (1987), the Ohio Supreme Court held that the state's explicit-exceptions statute, which requires that home education programs be approved by the local superintendent, did not violate the free exercise clause. Another religious issue has surfaced when parents have challenged the constitutionality of requirements concerning the qualifications of the home teacher (Richardson, 1991). A few states including Michigan require all teachers in home school to possess a teaching certificate. This requirement in Michigan was challenged in 1980, 1986, and 1991. In Hanson v. Cushman (1980), the federal district court found the statute to be reasonable because the parents had not proven that any of their fundamental rights had been violated. In the private school case of Sheridan Road Baptist v. Department of Education (1986), other Michigan parents challenged the certification requirement as a burden on the free exercise of religion. This was rejected by the Michigan Supreme Court, regarding certification as a minimal burden that was outweighed by the State's interest in providing proper education. In People v. DeJonge parents claimed the right to educate their children at home, as an exercise in religious freedom. The court upheld the state law ruling that the state's interest in educated citizens outweigh the rights claimed by the parents (Fischer, 1995). In a related Michigan case, People v. Bennett (1983), the State Supreme Court ruling involving home-school families that had been convicted of violating the compulsory education statute, was reversed from he lower courts decision. The State Supreme Court permitted religious home schooling on First Amendment grounds and curbed the power of education officials to review home schooling policies (Clark, 1994). The other constitutional attack on compulsory attendance laws is non religious, primarily on Fourteenth Amendment due process grounds that parents have the right that is, the liberty, to educate their children as they see fit (Richardson, 1991). This right argued parents is superior to the state's right to compel attendance and regulate education. In Scoma v. Chicago Board of Education (1974), Blackwelder v. Safnauer (1988), and Murphy v. State (1988), the courts specifically rejected the contention that the parents had an independent, non religious, fundamental right in educating their children. In Scoma, the parents sought an injunction and declatory judgment to prevent the Chicago Board from interfering with their decision to educate their children at home. Under the Pierce and Yoder test the Illinois federal district court said the statute is reasonable and constitutional (Richardson, 1991). Now that home schooling s allowed in all 50 states, thenext step for these parents is to incorporate their children's' home schooling with public school activities. One such instance is in Iowa that started the Home Instruction Program giving parents several choices relating to their child. For instance, the curriculum they will follow, the type of assistance they would like from teachers, and whether their child will attend the neighborhood school part time (dual enrollment). This program allows parent to work with public school officials. The public school teacher meets with the home school family every two weeks (Dahm, 1996). The most recent issue being dealt with by local school boards and state governments are the extent to which home schooled students can participate in school sports and other activities. The issues in how far public schools can open their doors to home schoolers include science labs, music classes, and extracurricular activities, but athletics get the most attention according to the Home School Legal Defense Fund (Brockett, 1995). That is because competitive sports are the one activity families can not easily duplicate as their children reach high school age. The Massachusetts Interscholastic Athletic Association, after three state judges ruled against home schoolers being barred from playing on public high school teams, has initiated a one year open door trial program (Brockett, 1995). A Pennsylvania federal court ruled the constitutional rights ofa 14 year old taught at home were not violated, when the Frazier school district refused to let him play sports because the district could not verify his grades and attendance. In a related situation the Governor of Florida vetoed legislation that would have opened extracurricular activities to home schoolers. He explained that no state law bans them from participating. This left standing a policy of the Florida High School Athletic Activities Association banning non students on the theory that they can not represent what they do not attend (Brockett, 1995). This negative attitude of High School Athletic Associations has led parents of home schooled athletes to take their argument to court. For example, in Massachusetts, Melissa Davis was allowed to play on Norton High School softball team even though she is home schooled (Blum, 1996). The state court judge ordered Norton to allow her to play believes she may have a chance to earn an athletic scholarship to college. To be eligible to play athletics a home schooled athlete must apply to the association for a waiver of its initial eligibility rules, submitting documents proving what they were taught at home meet N.C.A.A. standards. Under these standards a home schooled athlete who has sufficiently high standardized test scores and proof that they took at least 13 courses that meet the associations core course standards may be automatically awarded freshman eligibility (Blum, 1996). From the recent decisions handed down by the courts, public school teachers and schools are expected to cooperate with home school educators. The hostility between the two groups has began to disappear and the focus has returned to seeing that the students get the best education they can. If both sides of the spectrum continue to work together this can be achieved.

Literature Review Are Small Businesses always under

Literature Review Are Small Businesses always under Introduction Small businesses are always grappling with the challenge of insufficient capital, which has limited their growth and expansion amidst challenges of globalization. Mega companies have taken advantage of globalization factors that favor them and encroach into the remotest markets that favored survival of small businesses, hence offering stiffer competition.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Literature Review: Are Small Businesses always under-funded? specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Since globalization compels small business to expand and keep in tandem with business dynamics, insufficient capital becomes the greatest impediment that affects growth and development of small businesses relative to large businesses. According to Cavaluzzo and Wolken (2002), economic experts are asserting that insufficient capital is one of the greatest challenges facing the growth and development of small businesses ac ross the world (p.7). Given that capital is the backbone of any business enterprise, insufficient capital has been always an impediment to growth and development of small businesses. Many small businesses have been stagnating for a long period or growing at a slower pace because insufficient capital prevents them from expanding and developing into mega businesses. Therefore, literature review examines how economic experts view the issue of insufficient capital and importance of capital to small businesses. Insufficient Capital in Small Businesses Since insufficient capital has led to underfunding of small businesses, economic experts have been trying to find out if underfunding is a crucial factor that contributes to stagnation of business growth and development or there are other mediating factors. However, apparent factor that causes stagnation and poor performance of small businesses is underfunding. It is evident that capital is a significant factor in business that differentiat es between small and large businesses. Entrepreneurs with a limited amount of capital invest in small businesses; on the other hand, entrepreneurs who have unlimited capital tend to invest in mega businesses. Thus, capital is a limiting factor that defines the size of investment that entrepreneurs can venture. Hosmer (2009) states that, due to the expansive room of investment, small businesses always have deficient capital (p.4). The need to expand and obtain optimum profits from a given investment demands enough capital, which is always lacking in small businesses. So entrepreneurs of small businesses are grappling with the challenge of meeting customers’ demands as well as competing effectively with large businesses, yet they have limited capital. As small businesses contribute significantly to economic growth and development of a nation, economic experts have delved into ways of encouraging and improving small businesses. One of the recommendation of enhancing growth and d evelopment of small businesses is by making entrepreneurs access loans.Advertising Looking for research paper on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Accessibility to loans significantly determines the size of businesses that entrepreneurs can venture into, since capital is an impediment factor in growth and development of small businesses. Schacht (2010) argues that, large businesses and mega companies have been in a position to access loans and credit from various financial institutions and this advantage has considerably boosted their growth and development in the competitive business environments that threaten the existence of small businesses (p.4). Basing on the fact that large businesses are accessible to loans and credit from financial institutions, which have made them prosper, it thus follows that enhancing accessibility small businesses to loans, and credit will boost their growth and devel opment. Luetkenhorst and Geiger (2004) argue that, small businesses make a significant contribution to economic and social stability of a nation; hence, policies that enhance their accessibility to loans and credit from financial institutions are imperative (p.9). Therefore, governments need to streamline restrictive and discriminative policies that prevent entrepreneurs of small business from accessing loans and credits. Economic experts envisage that, equal access of loans and credit by all entrepreneurs provides a level ground that does not disadvantage small businesses relative to large businesses. Financial institutions and other credit institutions have been discriminating against small businesses because they do not have collateral security that would guarantee repayment of loans. In contrast, leading businesses have well established investments that financial institutions can rely on as collateral security. Hence, in accessibility of loans and credit has been subject to natu re of collateral security that entrepreneurs possess. Disparity in collateral security that small and large businesses offer when borrowing loans indicates differential growth rate of the two businesses. According to Kappel and Ishengoma (2008), the rate of business growth is directly proportional to the rate of investment (p.7). Thus, small business have a low rate of investment due to limited access to loans, which hampers growth and development, unlike large businesses that have unlimited access to loans. Therefore, economic experts are recommending that small businesses should have access to loans for them to solve the problem of insufficient capital that seems to cripple business progress.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Literature Review: Are Small Businesses always under-funded? specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Research carried out to study growth and development of businesses has shown that the proc ess occurs in five stages. At the first stage, the business viability entirely relies on the amount of capital invested in it. For a business to survive and pick up well, it must have sufficient capital. Existence stage is the first stage that determines whether a business will survive or not. At this stage, business is grappling with challenges such as capital and expanding market share. Kitching, Smallbone, Xhenet (2010) argue that, although customers may increase due to prevailing market conditions, capital becomes a limiting factor that affect the expansion of business to satisfy increasing number of customers (p.3). At existence stage, an entrepreneur entirely rely on invested capital as a driving force of business since there are no formal strategies and the owner solely run the business. Churchill and Lewis (1983) argue that, entrepreneurs usually close their businesses at existence stage due to insufficient capital for expansion (P.4). Since entrepreneurs are sole owners of small business, they feel exhausted to spend time, energy and a vast amount of capital, and thus quit establishing business at early stages of business growth. Therefore, it means insufficient capital is a serious impediment to the establishment and development of small businesses. Although many economic experts argue that insufficient capital is a significant factor that determines survival of small businesses, some economic experts argue that other factors that contribute considerably to growth and expansion of small business exist. For instance, size of market share that small businesses serve determines their growth rather than the amount of capital invested. The argument is only true if customers are limited, but in competitive markets where customers are many, amount of capital, which an entrepreneur invests in certain business, determines its competitiveness and subsequently its growth and development. Hence, Osei (1998) argues that, enhancing accessibility of loans and credi t to small businesses is central in stimulating economic growth of a nation (p.9). Small businesses contribute to economic growth and development because they contribute a considerable amount of taxes and create employment to a large number of people. Thus, formulation of policies and laws that enhance accessibility to loans is critical in boosting growth and development of small businesses.Advertising Looking for research paper on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Importance of Capital to Small Businesses Capital is particularly crucial in small businesses because it does not only determine growth and development of a business but also extent of satisfying customers. For an entrepreneur to start a business, capital is the most decisive factor that comes into consideration. This means that amount of capital that an entrepreneur start business with reflects viability of a business. Investing a small amount of capital implies that a business will have a low viability while investing a prodigious amount of capital shows enhanced viability of a business. Smallbone (2005) argues that, the only way of boosting growth and development of small businesses is by improving accessibility of capital (p.13). Many small businesses have been stagnating for years due lack of sufficient capital that would have enhanced expansion. In contrast, since successful businesses can easily access capital, they have experienced tremendous growth and development within a few years. Thus, capital is a fundamental factor that defines destiny of business. Insufficient capital affects growth and development of small businesses. Study carried out to ascertain concerns of entrepreneurs who own small businesses showed that insufficiency and inaccessibility of capital was an impediment factor that caused stagnation in businesses (Peek, Rosengren 1998, p.806). Entrepreneurs of small businesses perceive that they would have made significant progress in business if only they had all capital they needed. Comparative study of large and small businesses shows that the differential growth rate between the two entities is due to the invested capital and accessibility of loans. Blanchflower, Levine, and Zimmerman (1998) argue that, small business entrepreneurs have been experiencing discrimination since lending institutions perceive them as having limited collateral security relative to large businesses; thus, large businesses access enormous amount of capital as c ompared to small businesses (p.8). Therefore, economic experts have been advocating for extension of loans to small businesses, so that they could compete effectively with large businesses, for capital is an integral factor in business. Realizing the contribution of small businesses to economic growth and development, Small Business Administration of United States has recommended for enhanced access of capital to all entrepreneurs. According to Walter (2009), the Small Business Administration has taken several initiatives such as enhancing access to capital and reducing taxes as a way of promoting growth and development of small businesses (p.144). It is apparent that large businesses have been having a competitive advantage over small businesses because of accessibility to capital; however, increased accessibility of capital by small businesses is going to provide a level field where businesses can compete equally. Therefore, if a country needs to boost its economic stability in vi ew of globalization, accessibility of capital should not be a factor that limits growth and development of small business. Conclusion Growth and development of businesses depends on the amount of capital invested. It is evident that large businesses grow and develop faster as compared to small businesses because of the amount of capital. In this view, economic experts perceive that small businesses have been stagnating for years, for they do not have sufficient capital that is essential for expansion. Moreover, for decades, financial institutions have been discriminating against small businesses because they do not have enough collateral security to qualify them for loans. However, realization by various governments that small businesses contribute significantly to economic growth and development has led to the formulation of laws and policies that aid small business to grow and develop amidst competitive environment dominated by large businesses. Lending institutions, too, have bee n encouraging small businesses to borrow loans after realizing they are forms of lucrative investments just like giant businesses. References Blanchflower, G., Levine, P., Zimmerman, D., 1998. Discrimination in the Small Business Credit Market. National Bureau of Economic Research, pp. 1-11. Cavaluzzo, S., Wolken, D., 2002. Competition, Small Business Financing, and Discrimination: Evidence from a New Survey. Journal of Business, 75(4), pp. 1-23. Churchill, N., Lewis, V., 1983. The five Stages of Small Business Growth. Harvard  Business Review, pp. 1-12. Hosmer, L., 2009. A Venture Capital Primer for Small Business: Financial Management Series. United States Small Business Administration, pp. 1-15. Kappel, R., Ishengoma, E., 2008. Business Constraints and Growth Potential of Micro and Small Manufacturing Enterprises in Uganda. German Institute of Global and Area Studies, pp. 1-29. Kitching, J., Smallbone, D., Xhenet, M., 2010. Have Small businesses Beaten Recession. Small Bus iness Research Centre, Kingston University, pp. 1-16. Luetkenhorst, W., Geiger, R., (2004). Effective Policies for Small Business: A guide for the Policy Review Process and Strategic Plans for Micro, Small and Medium Enterprise Development. The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, pp. 1-110. Osei, K., 1998. Analysis of Factors Affecting the Development of an Emerging Capital Market: The Case of the Ghana Stock Market. African Economic Research Consortium, pp. 1-81. Peek, J., Rosengren, E., 1998. Bank Consolidation and Small Business Lending: It Is Not Just Bank Size that Matters. Journal of Banking and Finance, 22, pp. 799-819 Schacht, W., 2010. Small Business Innovation Research Program. Congressional  Research Service, pp. 1-9. Smallbone, D., 2005. Regulation and Small Firm Performance and Growth: A Review of the Literature. Small Business Centre, Kingston University, pp. 1-20. Walter, P. (2007). Supporting America’s Small Businesses. Small Business  Administration, pp. 143-156.

The Best IB Geography Study Guide and Notes for SL

The Best IB Geography Study Guide and Notes for SL/HL SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips If you’re an IB Geography SL/HL students in search of some extra free help, you’ve come to the right place. Whether you're looking for IB Geography notes for a test on a single topic or cramming for the final IB Geography papers, this guide has all the information you need. I created this IB Geography study guide using the best free online materials for IB Geography and ordered the materials following the newly-revised IB Geography SL/HL syllabus. How To Use This Article If you want to study a specific topic, use the Command + F function on your keyboard to search this article for specific IB Geography notes. For example, if you hope to read about Population change, use Command + F to bring up the search function. Type in â€Å"Extreme Environments† and it will bring up all of the study materials for that topic. I separate the resources into: Notes : notes (generally 2-4 pages) if you want a summary of each overall topic. Some resources also have video explanations. Case studies: case studies for each topic to help you better understand that topic using specific real world examples. If you’re looking for summary material to help you study for the IB Geography papers, check out the notes with supporting video for each topic. These notes are brief and great for a quick refresher. How To Use This Guide Throughout the School Year Use this guide throughout the school year as a review for in-class quizzes if you need more help learning the material. You need to be mastering the topics throughout the school year and not just waiting to cram before the IB Geography papers. The Best Study Practices for IB Geography Make sure you’re practicing related IB Geography past paper questions as you learn each new subject. You can find free IB Geography HL and IB Geography SL past papers here. Also, if you’re having difficulty understanding your in-class lesson, you should be reviewing the corresponding chapter in a textbook or this study guide. Common Study Mistakes IB Geography Students Make For IB Geography, there are lots of topics to master, so you can’t fall behind. Common mistakes students make are: #1: Trying to avoid the material you didn't learn in class. If you didn’t understand it in class, you need to find more help whether through this article or tutoring. #2: Only studying a week or two before the IB Geography papers. You will not be able to master all of the topics below in only a week or two (that is why the course is spread out over 1 to 2 years). Make sure you are learning the topics as they’re taught to you in class. Use this article for additional support learning the topics: Part #1: Geographic Themes- 60 Hours for SL, 90 Hours for HL The IB Geography syllabus gives you seven options for study. If you're on the SL track, you'll need to master two subjects; if you're on the HL track, you'll need to master three. Part#1:Geographic Themes Option A: Freshwater Topic 1: Drainage Basin Hydrology and Geomophology Notes: Comprehensive unit guide Unit notes with video references Case Studies: The 2010 Pakistan Floods The Three Gorges Project in China Topic 2: Flooding and Flood Mitigation Notes: Comprehensive unit guide Unit notes with video references Case Studies: The Nile and the Mississippi Topic 3: Water Scarcity and Water Quality Notes: Comprehensive unit guide Unit notes with video references Case Studies: USA/Mexico water conflict (scroll down to bottom of the page) Topic 4: Water Management Futures Notes: Comprehensive unit guide Unit notes with video references Case Studies: Integrated Drainage Basin Management Option B: Oceans and Coastal Margins Topic 1: Ocean-Atmosphere Interactions Notes: Comprehensive unit notes Unit notes with video references Case Studies: 1997/1998 El Nià ±o Typhoon Haiyan case study Topic 2: Interactions Between Oceans and Coast Places Notes: Comprehensive unit notes Unit notes with video references Case Studies: South China Sea conflict (scroll down to bottom of the page) Topic 3: Managing Coastal Margins Notes: Comprehensive unit notes Unit notes with video references Case Studies: Bimini development case study Topic 4: Ocean Management Futures Notes: Comprehensive unit notes Unit notes with video references Case Studies: Oil spills case study Option C: Extreme Environments Topic 1: Characteristics of Extreme Environments Notes: Comprehensive unit notes Unit notes with video references Case Studies: Uranium mining in Niger Trans-Alaska pipeline (documentary) Topic 2: Processes Landscapes Notes: Comprehensive unit notes Unit notes with video references Case Studies: Dust Bowl case study Soil erosion and solutions Topic 3: Managing Extreme Environments Notes: Comprehensive unit notes Unit notes with video references Case Studies: The Aral Sea Topic 4: Extreme Environments Futures Notes: Comprehensive unit notes Unit notes with video references Case Studies: Acacia Project in Senegal (scroll down to the bottom of page) Option D: Geophysical Hazards Topic 1: Geophysical Systems Notes: Comprehensive notes Unit notes with video references Case Studies: Montserrat volcano (scroll down to the bottom of page) Fracking causes earthquakes (scroll down to the bottom of page) Topic 2: Geophysical Hazard Risks Notes: Comprehensive notes Unit study flashcards Case Studies: The Chernobyl disaster case study Topic 3: Hazard RiskandVulnerability Notes: Comprehensive notes Unit notes with video references Case Studies: The 2010 Haiti earthquake Anchorage, Alaska earthquake case study Topic 4: Future Resilience and Adaptation Notes: Comprehensive notes Unit notes with video references Case Studies: Impact of climate change on vulnerable countries Large scale action on climate change Option E: Leisure, Tourism, and Sport Topic 1: Changing Leisure Patterns Notes: Comprehensive notes Unit notes with video references Case Studies: Leisure in China Leisure in the United States Topic 2: Tourism and Sport at the Local and National Scale Notes: Comprehensive notes Unit notes with video references Case Studies: The NBA league in North America Topic 3: Tourism and Sport at the International Scale Notes: Comprehensive notes Unit notes with video references Case Studies: London Olympics 2012 Rio Olympics 2016 Topic 4: Managing Tourism and Sport for the Future Notes: Comprehensive notes Unit notes with video references Case Studies: Ecotourism in Kenya Option F: Food and Health Topic 1: Measuring Food and Health Notes: Comprehensive notes Unit notes with video references Case Studies: Famine case study Topic 2: Food Systems and the Spread of Disease Notes: Comprehensive notes Unit notes with video references Case Studies: Global life expectancy Topic 3: Stakeholders in Food and Health Notes: Comprehensive notes Unit notes with video references Case Studies: HIV Malaria Topic 4: Future Health and Food Security and Sustainability Notes: Comprehensive notes Unit notes with video references Case Studies: Comprehensive list of case study topics Option G: Urban Environments Topic 1: The Variety of Urban Environments Notes: Comprehensive notes Unit notes with video references Case Studies: Habitat for Humanity in Manila Topic 2: Changing Urban Systems Notes: Comprehensive notes Unit notes with video references Case Studies: Urban deindustrialization (scroll to the bottom of page) Infrastructure growth (scroll to the bottom of the page) Topic 3: Urban Environmental and Social Stresses Notes: Comprehensive notes Unit SlideShare notes Case Studies: Redlining the New Deal Topic 4: Building Sustainable Urban Systems for the Future Notes: Comprehensive notes Unit SlideShare notes Case Studies: Phoenix, Arizona: The Least Sustainable City in the US Part #2: SL and HL Core: Geographic Perspectives- 70 Hours SL/HL Since this is core knowledge, both SL and HL students will be tested over the following material. Topic A: Population Distribution- Changing Population Knowledge Area 1: Population and Economic Development Patterns Notes: Comprehensive unit notes Unit notes with video reference Case Studies: Internal migration in Mongolia Population distribution in China (scroll down to bottom of page) Knowledge Area 2: Changing Populations and Places Notes: Comprehensive unit notes Unit notes with video reference Case Studies: Forced migration in Syria (scroll down to bottom of page) Knowledge Area 3: Challenges and Opportunities Notes: Comprehensive unit notes Unit notes with video reference Case Studies: Life expectancy in Japan Human trafficking in Thailand TopicB: Global Climate - Vulnerability and Resilience Knowledge Area 1: Causes of Global Climate Change Notes: Comprehensive unit notes Unit notes with video reference Case Studies: List of potential case study topics Knowledge Area 2: Consequences of Global Climate Change Notes: Comprehensive unit notes Unit notes with video reference Case Studies: How climate change affects agriculture Knowledge Area 3: Responding to Global Climate Change Notes: Comprehensive unit notes Unit notes with video reference Case Studies: Geoengineering Topic C: Global Resource Consumption and Security Knowledge Area 1: Global Trends in Consumption Notes: Comprehensive unit notes Unit notes with video reference Case Studies: The rise of the global middle class Knowledge Area 2: Impacts of Changing Trends in Resource Consumption Notes: Comprehensive unit notes Unit notes with video reference Case Studies: Canada and water security Knowledge Area 3: Resource Stewardship Notes: Comprehensive unit notes Unit notes with video reference Case Studies: Circular economy case study Part #3: Geographic Perspectives: Global Interactions- HL Only, 60 Hours If you're HL, you'll also be tested over the following three topics. Topic A: Power, Places, and Networks Knowledge Area 1: Global Interactions and Global Power Notes: Comprehensive unit notes Unit notes with video reference Case Studies: Global power players Knowledge Area 2: Global Networks and Flows Notes: Comprehensive unit notes Unit notes with video reference Case Studies: The narcotics trade Knowledge Area 3: Human and Physical Influences on Global Interactions Notes: Comprehensive unit notes Unit notes with video reference Case Studies: World's most isolated places Multi-governmental organizations (European Union case study) Topic B: Human Development and Diversity Knowledge Area 1: Development Opportunities Notes: Comprehensive unit notes Additional unit notes Case Studies: Cambodian indigenous minorities fight tide of development Knowledge Area 2: Changing Identities and Cultures Notes: Comprehensive unit notes Additional unit notes Case Studies: Jamaican diaspora in London and Toronto (scroll down to bottom of page) Knowledge Area 3: Local Responses to Global Interactions Notes: Comprehensive unit notes Unit notes with video reference Case Studies: Anti-immigration movements Topic C: Global Risks and Resilience Knowledge Area 1: Geopolitical and Economic Risks Notes: Comprehensive unit notes Unit notes with video reference Case Studies: Global supply chain risks Knowledge Area 2: Environmental Risks Notes: Comprehensive unit notes Unit notes with video reference Case Studies: Smoke and haze crossing international boundaries Knowledge Area 3: Local and Global Resilience Notes: Comprehensive unit notes Unit notes with video reference Case Studies: List of potential case study topics Part #4: Internal Assessment: SL and HL Fieldwork- 20 Hours In order to do well on theinternal assessment, students have to meet the following criteria (which we've taken directly from the IB Geography syllabus): #1: Students must demonstrate knowledge and understanding of specified content#2: They must demonstrate application and analysis of knowledge and understanding#3: Students must demonstrate synthesis and evaluation#4: Studentshave to select, use, and apply a variety of appropriate skills and techniques With that in mind, here are two examples of successful internal assessments: The Internal Assessment: A Step-By-Step Guide This guide walks you through each step of the Internal Assessment by walking you through a sample topic (urban renewal in East Berlin) Examples of the Internal Assessment This site includes sample cover pages, booklets that go over data collection, and even a PowerPoint introduction to the assignment What’s Next? Learn more about IB Geography: Every IB Geography Past Paper Available: Free and Official Learn more about other IB Classes: Every IB English Past Paper Available: Free and Official Every IB Math Studies Past Paper Available: Free and Official Every IB History Past Paper Available: Free and Official Every IB Economics Past Paper Available: Free and Official Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points or your ACT score by 4 points?We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

Ancient History Essay Example for Free

Ancient History Essay Ancient history (10) , Pompeii (4) company About StudyMoose Contact Careers Help Center Donate a Paper Legal Terms & Conditions Privacy Policy Complaints New research has immensely impacted on our understanding of daily life in both Pompeii and Herculaneum. Experts in archaeology, science and other fields have revealed copious amounts of information about people, buildings and food found in the two cities prior to the eruption in 62 AD. Experts such as Estelle Lazer and Sarah Bisel have assisted in heightening our understanding of the daily life in Pompeii and Herculaneum. From 1986 Estelle Lazer worked on a sample of over 300 individuals who were represented by a collection of disarticulated bone. The techniques of forensic medicine and physical anthropology were used to determine sex, age-at-death, height, signs of disease and population affinities of the victims. The results indicated that almost equal numbers of males and females from all age groups did not manage to escape the town before it was destroyed. Sarah Bisel worked with the bone analysis of the skeletons of Herculaneum to determine and study the lifestyle differences between the social classes present within Herculaneum. She discovered many things about the people of Herculaneum such as the town was a genetically diverse society, children were often malnourished due to the lack of calcium in their teeth and the bodies had high levels of lead. This new information has majorly effected and broadened our understanding of daily life in Pompeii and Herculaneum. The evidence of food in the two towns and the study of these by experts such as Wilhelmina Jashemski and the team of principal researchers known as the Pompeii Food and Drink Project, further develop our knowledge of daily life in these famous towns of Campania. Jashemski’s project had the purpose of studying animal and plant remains in order to gain an understanding of the kinds of gardens in and around Pompeii as well as gathering information on the wine and oil industries of the area. By examining soil contours and carbonised plant remains, archaeologists have gained a more accurate picture of produce and ornamental gardens in Pompeii. The purpose of the Pompeii Food and Drink Project was to analyse the patterns of daily life in a non-invasive way to study the structures that are associated with food and drink. The Project has collected many ancient artefacts and information, and answered many questions about the food and drink storage, distribution, preparation, serving, and consumption in Ancient Pompeii. All these sources combine to give us a more acute knowledge of the ancient towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum. The buildings found in Pompeii and Herculaneum provide extensive information about the lifestyle of people living there. The House of Pompeii Project, started in 1977, had the focus of investigating and salvaging buildings which had been excavated in previous years but had not necessarily been recorded. The two houses that were particularly studied was the House of the Ancient Hunt and the House of the Coloured Capitals. The Project has not uncovered any new information, only recorded findings on certain housing which were either not properly recorded or completely ignored. The Insula of Menander Project had much the same aim as the House of Pompeii Project, in that they were redressing the deficiencies in earlier records. Their main focus, though, was the insula conducted under Amedeo Maiuri. The Project provided a detailed history of the insula showing that there had been frequent building changes over time and that there appeared to be a late appearance of shops and the addition of upper storeys in the last years of the city. The Pompeian Forum Project’s main objective was to produce more accurate plans of surviving remains by the use of architectural analysis to widen the understanding of contemporary urban problems. The traditional view that the Forum was a ‘builder’s yard’ after the 62 AD earthquake was disproved. There was also evidence found of a comprehensive earthquake plan for the Eastern side of the Forum. In Source A we can see how new research has amplified our knowledge of Pompeii and Herculaneum. Through research by Italy’s National Institute of Optics, it has been discovered that the famous ‘Pompeian red’ was a colour created from the mixture of yellow paint and the gases from Vesuvius. In conclusion, the impacts of new research and technologies have considerably expatiated our enlightenment of the daily life in Pompeii and Herculaneum. The many sources uncovered and analysed from these towns have been much more useful as a result of developing technology and research. In the years to come, technology will continue to develop, along with more information being discovered and this will result in more and more information being provided about the famous ancient towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum. Ancient History. (2016, Oct 30). We have essays on the following topics that may be of interest to you

A striking feature of weak states is that they face very few Essay

A striking feature of weak states is that they face very few challenges from the people living in them. Why do weak states persist - Essay Example Research and analysis revel that the major contributor of weak states’ persistence is international support and assistance. Political scientists’ perception about the concept of state relies on Max Weber’s definition which entitles state as a corporate group that: holds a certain jurisdiction; practices continuous organization; maintains monopoly of power over territory and its population, in addition to all activities in its jurisdiction. The concept is primarily based on empirical and de facto aspects of statehood. The test for Weber’s state is the claim to monopoly of force in its jurisdiction. It implies that if an internal or external group or organization gets the hold and monopolistic control of a certain jurisdiction, it becomes a state. When there are several groups contesting for the same territory, and none can get control over and practice monopolistic force, Weber attributes this situation as â€Å"statelessness† (qtd. in Jackson and Carl 2-3). According to Weber’s empirical approach to statehood, many African states can be disqualified from the status of being a state because they don’t practice monopoly of force over their territorial jurisdiction. Rivals to the national government effectively established monopoly in some of the cases. Absence of continuous control of a permanent political organization and anarchy exist in these states. Regardless of the lacking governmental control, anarchy, and uncertainty, these states persist as members of international society of states. If we consider that the empirical statehood led to the persistence of state, some of the African states must disqualify. However, they persist and none of the claimant governments who practiced de facto control could establish new states in the particular area (Jackson and Carl 3). States definition that is based on juridical attributes of statehood is Ian Brownlie’s. He defines state as a legal person authorized by international law.

METFORMIN Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

METFORMIN - Research Paper Example But the widest indication of the drug is for the treatment of type 2 diabetes. The drug is given to control the blood glucose levels of patients in the normal range so that the proper bodily functions are retained and the problems of the nervous system; cardiovascular system and the renal system are avoided in the diabetic patients. The drug has an added benefit since it has been proved that the drug does not result in reduction of the blood glucose level below normal and the patient does not experience episodes of hypoglycemia. It also does not lead to increased weight in the patient who takes this drug. This is the reason that it is preferably prescribed to the diabetic patients. The drug works via various mechanisms which include increasing the sensitivity of the cells towards their response to insulin by increasing the uptake of glucose by the cells. It further promotes the intracellular metabolism of the glucose as well. Furthermore, it leads to a reduction in the amount of hepa tic glucose as well as renal glucose that is released into the bloodstream by means of reducing the amount of its production in these organs. In a similar manner, it also reduces the absorption of glucose from the intestines. The main side effects of the drug include gastrointestinal problems. These include diarrhea, vomiting, nausea as well as feeling of uneasiness in the abdomen. It has also been proven that metformin causes a decrease in the absorption of vitamin B12 by the intestine and hence it can lead to reduction in its levels. The gastrointestinal symptoms generally subside. Thus, it has been seen that the drug does not lead to very serious side effects.

Corporate Governance in The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Dissertation

Corporate Governance in The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia - Dissertation Example ance and the Role of Auditors in the KSA 26 Synthesis of the Review 28 Chapter 3: Methodology 30 Introduction 30 Research Approach 30 Research Design 30 Specification of Variables 31 Hypotheses 33 Sampling Technique 35 Methods and Materials 36 Reliability and Validity 36 Data-Collection Procedure 36 Ethical Considerations 37 Method of Data Analysis 37 Conclusion 38 Chapter 4: Results and Discussion 39 Introduction 39 Results 39 Discussion 60 Chapter 5: Conclusions and Recommendations 65 Conclusions 65 Recommendations 67 List of Tables Table 1. Independent and Dependent Variables 31 Table 2. Demographic Traits 32 Table 3. Research Questions with Corresponding Alternative Hypotheses 33 Table 4. Descriptive statistics: Evaluations of corporate governance (Internal Auditors) 40 Table 5. Descriptive statistics: Facets of the auditor’s role influenced by corporate governance (Internal Auditors) 42 Table 6. T-test: Facets of the auditor’s role influenced by corporate governanc e (Internal Auditors) 43 Table 7a. Coefficient of determination: Evaluations of corporate governance vs. overall success of corporate governance as regards the auditor’s role (Internal Auditors) 44 Table 7b. One-way ANOVA: Evaluations of corporate governance vs. overall success of corporate governance as regards the auditor’s role (Internal Auditors) 45 Table 7c. Beta coefficients: Evaluations of corporate governance vs. overall success of corporate governance to the auditor role (Internal Auditors) 46 Table 8. Descriptive statistics: Evaluations of corporate governance (External Auditors) 47 Table 9. Descriptive statistics: Facets of the auditor’s role influenced by corporate governance (Internal Auditors) 50 Table 10. T-test: Facets of the auditor’s role influenced by corporate governance... Following the major recent scandals involving accountants and their tendency to restate earnings, as well as the collapse of Enron and WorldCom, various calls for reform have been made, particularly in the field of management, external auditing and corporate governance (Brown 2005; Deakin & Konzelmann 2004). Research that delves into the matter at hand has highlighted the importance of the so-called â€Å"corporate governance mosaic†, which generally emphasises the critical role of the interactions among the important parties involved in financial reporting (Ali 1999). Moreover, researchers have given attention to how the corporate governance initiative of organisations significantly affects the processes related to financial reporting and auditing. It has likewise been argued that the auditors, together with the board of directors, must work hand in hand towards the betterment of the auditing process in accordance with the principles of corporate governance (Cohen, Krishnamoo rthy & Wright 2007; Dewing & Russell 2004). Strong corporate governance positively affects the quality of financial reports in a sense that it minimizes the incidence of fraud, fewer restatements and lower earnings of the management (Cohen et al. 2007). The nature and strength with which organisations carry out their initiatives pertaining to corporate governance significantly affect the audit process. Furthermore, actors involved in the advancement of corporate governance initiatives are also likely to be more responsible in ensuring that financial reporting is of high quality (Abbott, Parker & Peters 2004). Finally, it is also through the proper adoption of the principles of corporate governance that auditors are enabled to solve their disputes with clients. The relationship of corporate governance and the role of the auditors has indeed been the subject of many studies (Abbott, Parker & Peters 2004; International Organisations of Securities Commissions). Additionally, researchers who have undertaken studies in relation to the topic have all underscored the fact that the corporate governance system helps in preventing the collapse of corporations. The relationship between the two is also based on the role of auditors in ensuring the quality of the financial reports (Krishnan n.d.). In view of this, this research aims to look into how corporate governance influences the role of the auditors in the context of companies in the KSA.

An advanced treatment of lasers and their applications Coursework

An advanced treatment of lasers and their applications - Coursework Example This is the distance along the propagation direction of a beam from the waist to the place where the area of the cross section is doubled. An associated variable is the confocal parameter, b, which is twice the Rayleigh range. This is a measure of how fast the beam diverges far from the beam waist. A laser light with a narrow beam divergence is mostly used to make laser pointer devices. Normally the beam divergence of laser light is measured using beam profiler. Brewsters angle is an angle of incidence at which light with a specific polarization is perfectly transmitted via a transparent dielectric surface, with no reflection. When unpolarized beam is incident at this angle, the light that is reflected from the surface is thus seamlessly polarized. Spontaneous emission refers to the process by which a light source like an atom, molecule in an excited state undergoes a transition to a state with a lower energy for instance the ground state and emits a photon. Depending on the nature of the indeterminacy, there are two mechanism of broadening. If the indeterminacy in the frequency or wavelength is due to a phenomenon that is the same for each quantum emitter, there is homogeneous broadening, while if each quantum emitter has a different type of fluctuation, the broadening is inhomogeneous. The most often cases in solid state systems where the fluctuation differs for each system (inhomogeneous broadening) is when as a result of the presence of dopants, the local electric field is different for each emitter, and so the stark effect changes the energy levels in an inhomogeneous way. The homogeneous broadened emission line will have a Lorentzian profile whereas the in homogeneously broadened emission will have a Gaussian profile. One phenomena may be present at the same time, however if one has a broader fluctuation, it will be the one responsible for

Cultural Activity Report Guide Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Cultural Activity Report Guide - Essay Example I do not to know what to think. One thing is for sure, the United States comprises many ethnic groups, cultures and races. How the Latino fits into the American society, is still in a process of evolution. I attended the event. Electric energy: Am attracted to the people who smile and enjoy themselves. The music was passionate and live. I could not resist moving to the rhythm of the salsa music, even though it is not my kind of music. I actually love rock music instead. There was smell and taste of delicious ethnic foods from all over central and Latin America. I also observed dancing children. Although I did not expect it, I felt like I was fitting. It was a visual feast. There were colorful booths, ethnic costumes, colorful people and different races. I felt a sense of ethnic pride and richness from the people. There was a lot of joy from the music as people were having fun. The atmosphere looked easy and there was a sense of belonging. It was a great time to meet new friends and to socialize. Sight: I could see happy people dancing. Moreover, I saw colorful booths and a salsa band by the name, Julio Bravo orchestra. This happened to be the headliner band in the cultural event. I saw community and professional groups showcasing the Latin dance and ballet folkloric. I could also see ethnic costumes, different races, children who were dancing and people who were

Law Enforcement Deviance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Law Enforcement Deviance - Essay Example The consequences of this deviance by the Los Angeles Police Department will be felt for many years as the public struggles to regain trust and the department struggles to regain credibility. Forms of police Deviance The use of excessive force and evidence planting are two forms of police deviance that are cited in the Rampart Independent Review. These acts of deviance are not exclusive to the Los Angeles Police Department, as there have been many occurrences nationwide regarding the use of unnecessary force and interfering with or planting evidence by police. Excessive use of force continues to be a major problem today. One of the most notorious cases of excessive use of force by officers was the case involving Rodney King. The Rodney King case not only contained excessive use of force, but also the falsifying of police reports (Mangan, 2000). The Los Angeles Police Department’s supervisors and officers downplayed the injuries to King as minor scrapes and bruises. The police o fficers involved in the beating reported that King confronted officers, resisted, and increased his level of resistance. A different story, however, is shown by the video. King is seen in a vulnerable position on his hands and knees as officers circle him and beat him repeatedly with their batons (Mangan, 2000). The two officers were found guilty, and the other two were acquitted. Police brutality has been a growing issue over the years, with police feeling like they are above the law and insinuating that criminals have no rights hence the brutal beating. There could be no possibly good reason to beat people especially when they are unarmed and handcuffed. Another law enforcement deviant behavior exposed by the Rampart Review is the abuse of drugs by law enforcement officers. In a particular example, a police officer accused several of his colleagues of taking drugs. In the Boston Globe was found that about 75 police officers did not pass any drug tests. For those that failed the te st, cocaine, heroin, ecstasy and marijuana were some of the drugs found in their tests. Of the 9354 people employed by the police force, 14 officers have failed drug tests since the year 2000 (Smalley, 2006). Reasons behind the deviant behavior by law enforcement officers Reasons cited in the Rampart Review about the law enforcers’ deviant behaviors are varied. One of the reasons given is the desire for the LAPD to get high marks for the declining crime statistics, possibly pushed by the officer’s leadership. Based on the claim that crime in Rampart area declined from about 1000 instances to fewer than 500 indicates this possibility. Another possible reason could be the lure of cash confiscated in drug busts. Normally, a police officer in Los Angeles earns an average of $42,000 (Indeed.com, 2009). Drug raids confiscate between tens and hundreds of thousands of dollars. The officers could be tempted to look for ways of keeping these funds for themselves. Once a police o fficer starts down slippery slope of theft and perjury, it is usually very difficult to find a firm footing. Many officers may find themselves continually trying cover their tracks until the point at which they hurt a civilian who may have too much information concerning their deviant behavior. Hence, the